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Bedir Khan Beg

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Bedir Khan Beg
Mîr Bedîrxan Begê Bûhtî
Bedir Khan Pasha
Costume of Beder Khan Bey, by Miner Kilbourne Kellogg
Emir of Bohtan
In office
1821–1847
Preceded bySeyfeddin beg
Succeeded byYezdanşêr Beg
Personal details
Born1803
Cizre, Emirate of Bohtan
Died1868
Damascus, Ottoman Empire
Spouse16
RelationsCeladet Alî Bedirxan
Süreyya Bedir Khan
Kamuran Alî Bedirxan
Children
Parent(s)Abdullah Beg (Father)
Gulê Xanim (Mother)
Military service
Battles/wars

Emir Bedirkhan Beg Bohtani,[a] commonly known as Bedir Khan Beg[b] or simple as Bedir Beg[1] (1803–1869), was a Kurdish lord,[2][3] member of the Azizan dynasty and the last Mir and mütesellim of the Emirate of Botan.[4] Under his rule, it acquired a high degree of autonomy and even managed to stay de facto independent. The capital of the Pashalik was Cizre, which, along with Eruh, was Bedir Khan‘s headquarters. Bedir Khan is known for his commanded massacres of Christian and Yazidi minorities, and his 1845 uprising against the Ottoman central government.

Hereditary head of the house of Rozhaki whose seat was the ancient Bitlis Castle and descended from Sharafkhan Bidlisi, Bedir Khan was born in Cizre (now in Turkey) of Azizan family.[5] He became the Mir of the Emirate of Botan in 1821 and ruled until 1847.[4] The Bedir Khans also claimed descent from Muhammad's general Khalid ibn al-Walid.[5][6]

Bedir first appears in historical accounts as the Mîr of Bohtan who became involved in many confrontations with Ottoman state officials in Kurdistan.[7] He joined the administrative-military apparatus of the Ottoman Empire, holding various posts until 1821, when he was appointed Beg, ruler of the Bohtan emirate.[8] His diplomatic and administrative skills, his interest in modernist ideas and concepts, his vengefulness and harshness in imposing law and order, and his looting practices towards persons and communities in order to increase his profits caused both the admiration and the criticism by his contemporaries, as well as an ongoing controversy among historians regarding his personality.[9] As his influence grew, his involvement in Ottoman politics increased culminating in his active opposition to the ongoing Ottoman military reforms.[10] He was one of the most prominent leaders. After being declared a rebel in 1845, he was captured and sent in exil in 1847 at the age of 42 or 43, after a successful military campaign against his forces.[10]

Personal life

[edit]

Bedir Khan was born into the Kurdish Azizan clan in Cizre, the capital city of the Bohtan emirate.[11] His father was named Abdullah Bey, and became the ruler of Bohtan after his cousin Sayfuddin (who succeeded Abdullah Bey after his death), wasn't able to calm down the region and his brother Said Bey was too religious and left the leadership to Bedir Khan.[12]

Bedir Khan‘s mother Gulê was forced to take control of Abdullah Bey‘s band in order to retain her family's position. She had a great impact on Bedir Khan‘s personality, and Bedir Khan deeply respected her.[13][14]

Bedir Khan’s ancestries claimed descentancy of Khalid ibn al-Walid. For this reason, this lineage was called Azizan in order to express the honor of being connected to the lineage of someone like Khalid ibn al-Walid, who achieved many military successes in the name of Islam throughout his life. Muhammad Amin Zaki and other Kurdish historians claimed that the word "Azizan" comes from Mir Abdullah Azizi, the son of ibn-Khalid of Cizirî, one of the founders of the dynasty.[15] However, according to the statement of Kamuran Alî Bedirkhan, one of Bedir Khan Beg‘s grandsons and a member of Bedir Khan Beg’s family, the word "Azizan" comes from "Arzizan", a small village far from Cizir town.[16][17]

Throughout his career, it has been recorded that Bedir Khan Beg had around 16 wives, including Persian and Turkish diplomatically influenced marriages.[18] Bedir Khan had 21 children in total.[19] Emin Ali Bedir Khan was one of his sons and Celadet Bedir Khan, Süreyya Bedir Khan and Kamuran Alî Bedirxan were his grandchildren

Reign

[edit]
Territory of the Principality of Bohtan

After the death of Bedir Khan Beg‘s father Abdullah Beg, his cousin Emir Seyfeddin Bey took over the leadership of the emirate.[20] During the reign of Seyfeddin Bey, who was quiet and concerned with spirituality, the administration of the emirate deteriorated and the tribes within the Bohtan Emirate got out of control.[21] Bedir Khan Beg was disturbed by this administrative deterioration and did not remain silent about these negative events, but intervened in the administration from time to time.[20] Seyfeddin Beg voluntarily withdrew from the position of emirate and haned over the administration to Bedir Khan Beg‘s younger brother Salih Bey.[22] Since Salih Beg himself was also busy with worship and had a pious disposition, he could not solve the administrative deterioration and the lack of authority in the Bohtan Emirate. Since Salih Bey had joined the Naqshbandi order at that time, he found it appropriate to withdraw into seclusion and left the emirate to his brother Bedir Khan Beg in 1821,[20][21][22][23] who was only 19 years old when he became the Mir.[24][25][26]

During his first term as Mir, he soon established a regional control strong enough, that allowed him to deny his support to the Ottoman Sultan during the Russo-Turkish War between 1828 and 1829.[27] During this period, the Ottoman Empire made efforts to reduce the authority of regional governments and implemented administrative regulations based on a centralized management approach. For this reason, rebellions were seen in semi-autonomous regional governments in many regions. Bedir Khan Beg coincided with the beginning of a period in which the struggles between the Ottoman Empire and the Kurdish feudal lords were very important. Because this was the period in which reforms would be made, resulting in the elimination of the semi-autonomous Kurdish lords.

Administration and reforms

[edit]

In the early periods of his rule, Bedir Khan Beg did not have a strong enough power to change the course of events developing around him.[28] He managed to develop the war-torn districts under his control and within years, the population in the area in his control grew significantly.[29] Bedir Khan Beg’s actions over the Emirate were based on reforms and efforts to correct the administrative structure that had deteriorated during the reign of previous Emirs. Bedir Khan Beg, who strengthened his power over time, began to govern the Cizre region authoritarianly and his first action was to unite the scattered, rebellious and stray tribes in the Bohtan Region under his own body. During this period, Bedir Khan Beg made a number of administrative appointments and carried out administrative arrangements. Bedir Khan Beg appointed Kurdish scholar Abdülkuddüs Bey as the Sheikh-ul-Islam within the Bohtan Emirate, Tahir Ağa (Tahirê Memo) as the head of military affairs, Hamit Ağa as the commander of the cavalry, and Efendi Ağa as the head of the treasury and internal affairs.[30]

From the early years of his Emirate, Bedir Khan Beg put pressure on thieves and robbers in the region and imposed strict punishments, thus ensuring peace and tranquility in the Bohtan region. Foreign travelers stated that they saw peace and security in Bedir Khan Beg’s Bohtan region that they had not seen in other countries and regions. American missionaries named Rais and Bres, who visited Bedir Khan Beg in June 1836, stated that no suspect could escape the Beg’s hands, and they also stated that theft and bribery that were seen in many parts of the country were not encountered in these regions, and that the hands of thieves and robbers who were caught were immediately cut off, thus ensuring peace even in the most backward regions of the Bohtan Emirate.[31]

His success was such, that European diplomats from the region reported to their governments about Bedir Khans ability to provide his followers with a good economic standard and security, comparing with other neighboring regions.[29] Bedir Khan was proud of the security he brought to the region, that under his leadership, banditry had disappeared and caravans were able to cross his territory in safety.[32]

He raised taxes, minted his own coins and organized the justice system.[33] The security in Bohtan gave him such popularity among its habitants, that many families from neighboring districts settled in the Emirate of Bohtan.[34] This led to a dispute with the Vali of Mosul, who in 1842 wanted to integrate the district of Cizre into the province of Mosul, an aim, to which the population of Cizre did not agree to.[34] By 1845, Bedir Khan beg ruled over a region spanning from Diyarbakir to Mosul in the west to Urmia in the east.[35] As it was known that he had planned the modernization of his troops by creating cross-tribal militias constituted by soldiers of several tribes and that the friday sermons were shouted in his name, the central Ottoman Government decided to end the emerging independence movement of Bedir Khan.[36]

Ethnic groups under his rule

[edit]

These reforms of Bedir Khan Beg greatly increased his prestige among the other Kurdish Beg’s in the region, and towards the end of the 1830s, when the border tension between the Ottoman Empire and Iran was escalating, Bedir Khan Beg was thinking of taking advantage of the current situation and incorporating the regions from Van, Bitlis, Muş and Diyarbakır to Lake Urmia into his sphere of influence.[37] For this reason, he tried to have good relations with the people of Eastern and Southeastern Anatolia, and especially to develop his relations with the Armenians.[38] According to some Armenian historians, Bedir Khan Beg was following a conscious policy to gain the political support of Russia and Iran by taking a large part of Kurdistan under his influence in alliance with the Armenians.[39]

Bedir Khan Begs period is described as a period of friendly relations between Kurds and Armenians.[40] In addition to Armenians, another ethnic group that has lived with Kurds for centuries is the Nestorians. Nestorians were a community that generally lives in the Hakkari region and has good relations with Kurds.[41] This continued in the early periods of Bedir Khan Beg. Apart from these ethnic groups, there are also Yazidis who continue their existence in the region. The vast majority of Yazidis were in the Bohtan Emirate and in the northern parts of today’s Iraq. Bedir Khan Beg and the Yazidis never had good relations and he personally led several expeditions against them.[42]

Ottoman-Russian War (1828-1829)

[edit]

Due to Russia's desire to reach the warm seas, it has always had an interest in the immigrant communities in the Eastern Anatolian Region since 1805.[43] Because it was essential for Russia to reach the warm seas, to disintegrate the Ottoman Empire and to establish an Armenian and Kurdish State in Eastern Anatolia.[44] In the 1828-1829 Ottoman-Russian War, Russian troops won the Battle of Yeniköy on the Eastern Front and entered Erzurum on July 8, 1829.[45] The Yazidi Chief Mirza was persuaded to join the war by Ivan Paskevich, the commander of the Caucasian armies. Paskevich contacted other Kurdish tribal leaders and leaders in January 1829 in the same way and tried to convince them to side with Russia. Süleyman and Hasan Ağa from the Bulanık Sanjak branch of the Zilan tribe immediately accepted this offer from the Russians.[46] Bayezid Pasha and Behlül Pasha the Kurd also tried to take the side of the Russians. Bedir Khan Beg did not give the soldiers he was supposed to give to the Ottomans and prevented the tribes who wanted to give them. Bedir Khan Beg and the Soran Emirate, Bahdinan and Emirate of Hakkâri also avoided joining the war on the Ottoman side.[47][48]

Ottoman-Egyptian War (1831-1833)

[edit]

Bedir Khan Beg took the side of the Ottoman Empire with his forces in this war.[49] In this war, the Ottoman soldiers were led by a general named Hafız Pasha, who was also the commander of operations in Kurdistan.[50] The Ottoman Army, commanded by Hafız Pasha, suffered a great defeat against the Egyptian forces. Immediately after the war, Bedir Khan Beg withdrew his soldiers first to Diyarbakır and then to Cizre and disbanded his army without giving any notice.[50] Because the Ottoman Empire's defeat in this war greatly shook its political authority in the region. Bedir Khan Beg took advantage of this situation of the Ottoman Empire and increased his influence in the region and sought different policies.

Ottoman Eastern Campaign (1833-1839)

[edit]

As a result of the weakening of central authority in the Ottoman Empire, similar feudal orders of the "Ayan" type, which emerged in many regions of Anatolia in the early 19th century, began to appear in the Eastern and Southeastern Anatolia regions.[51] Thereupon, Mahmud II was thinking of organizing the internal administration and modernizing the empire.[52] In order to consolidate his power, he decided to eliminate all powers acquired through inheritance and tradition or based on popular support. After the series of conflicts of 1806-1812 against the russians, centralization policies were put into practice and Sultan Mahmud II took action to eliminate the Ayans. He ended the Ayans in Anatolia between 1812-1817 and then the Ayans in the Balkans between 1814-1820. The situation was very different in Kurdistan, where there were almost semi-independent Kurdish and Yazidi principalities that had lasted for centuries. In other words, it would be much more difficult to bring the Kurdish emirs who dominated large tribes to their right.[53]

The new regulations that Sultan Mahmud II wanted to make caused major rebellions in the region. The most important of these rebellions were the rebellions of Said Beg, Bedir Khan Beg and Muhammad Pasha.[54] Mustafa Reşid Pasha and Hafiz Mehmed Pasha were assigned to suppress these rebellions. Bedir Khan Beg acted as an intermediary between the Ottoman Empire and the Kurdish Begs during these rebellions and thanks to his influence, peace agreements were reached with the Kurdish Begs.[55]

1843-1846 massacres in Hakkari

[edit]

A series of massacres in Hakkari in the years 1843 and 1846 of Assyrian Christians were carried out by the Kurdishemirs of Bohtan and Hakkari, Bedir Khan Beg and Nurullah Beg along with allied Assyrian tribes who were against the rule of Shimun XVII Abraham.[56] The massacres resulted in the killing up to 50,000 Assyrians.[57][58][59]

In July 1843, the Kurdish alliance, along with Assyrians that were against the rule of Shimun XVII Abraham[60] led by Bedir Khan Beg, attacked the Assyrians in Hakkari, destroyed their villages and killed many of them.[61] Many of those who participated in the massacres had taken advantage of the weak connections between the Assyrian tribes, and many were forced to leave their homes due to the massacre.[62] Hormuzd Rassam tried using his influence with the Vali of Baghdad Najib Pasha to pressure Badr Khan for the release of prisoners, which included close relatives of the Patriarch of the Church of the East who had in the meantime taken refuge in Mosul.[63][64] His attempts only led to the release of about 150, one of whom was the sister of the patriarch, while the rest were distributed as war booty between Agha's and Mullahs.[65]

On August 3, Bedir Khan Beg had succeeded in "subduing the tribes and it was reported that 'still the slaughter is not yet ended, and several who have attempted to flee have been murdered...'". Then the invaders had turned "against the district of Tiyari, where they had succeeded in occupying the villages and indulged in the cruelest acts against its people". Even "those who had not opposed the Kurdish invasion had been treated in the same way as the fighters." The patriarch's mother's body was chopped into four pieces. Many women and young children "were taken captive to be sold as slaves."[66]

Another massacre was inflicted by Bedir Khan Beg in 1846, Even against those Assyrians who joined him in his first campaign of massacres in 1843.[67] This massacre received international attention through western press; it also woke European politicians and public opinion to the plight of Christians. This led the European countries to pressure the Porte to intervene and stop the massacres.[68]

Due to the massacres committed by the troops of the Bedir Khan Beg against the independent Assyrian tribes, "the long-Iasting existence of the Assyrian people as an independent body" was ended.[69]

Alliance with Muhammad Pasha on Yazidi massacres (1832)

[edit]
Many Yazidis from Sheikhan, who had fled from the Kurds but could not cross the Tigris river.[70]

Bedir Khan Beg was repeatedly responsible for massacres of the Yazidis. In the year 1832, about 70,000 Yazidis were killed by the Sunni Kurdish princes Bedir Khan Beg and Muhammad Pasha of Rawanduz.[71] Bedir Khan Beg was not always on good terms with Muhammad Pahsa, in 1834, his army had to defend the Emirate from him.[27] In 1836, the Ottomans attacked and defeated him, and Bedir Khan renewed his vow of allegiance to the Sultan[27] In 1838, the Ottoman Reshid Pasha conquered Cizre[72] and Bedir Khan began to lose his power due to the centralist policies of the Ottoman Empire, which culminated in the Tanzimat Edict of 1839 and its application the following year. Following the Battle of Nizip in 1839, in which Bedir Khan took part for the Ottoman side,[73] he emerged as the dominant Kurdish ruler in central Kurdistan.[74] His men almost killed the whole Yazidi population of Shekhan. Some Yazidis tried to escape to Sinjar.[75][76][77] When they attempted to escape towards Sinjar, many of them drowned in the Tigris river. Those who could not swim were killed. About 12,000 Yazidis were killed on the bank of the Tigris river by Bedir Khan Beg's men. Yazidi women and children were also kidnapped.[78]

In 1844, Bedir Khan Beg and his men committed a massacre against the Yazidis in the Tur Abdin region. His men also captured many Yazidis and forced them to convert to Islam. The inhabitants of seven Yazidi villages were all forced to convert to Islam.[79]

Triple alliance

[edit]

Following the Battle of Nizip, Bedir Khan allied himself with Han Mahmud of Müküs and Nurullah Bey of Hakkari in 1840 to a triple alliance.[80] As the Ottomans decided to detach Cizre from Diyarbakir and have it joined to the Mosul Eyalet, Bedr Khan opposed the decision and would not submit to the authority of the Vali of Mosul.[81] In the meantime, Han Mahmoud of Müküs unsuccessfully attempted to conquer the area around Bitlis.[82] The triple alliance entered in conflict with the local Assyrian Christian population, and perpetrated massacres amongst them in 1843 and 1846.[80] The conflict arose, as Nestorians in the area between Urmia, Mosul and Hakkari, decided to refuse their accorded tribute to the Emir of Hakkari in 1841.[83] After Nurullah Bey unsuccessfully attempted to subdue the Nestorians led by Shimun XVII Abraham, he called for the assistance by Bedir Khan Beg.[83] In 1843, Bedir Khan broke their resistance and Mar Shimun took refuge in Mosul.[84] And also in 1844 in the Tur Abdin mountains, Yazidis were again raided by Bedir Khan Beg.[85] Bedir Khan Beg's goal was to force the Yazidis to convert to Islam.[86] On 22 February 1846, Khan Mahmud wrote in a letter he to Mehmed Emin Pasha, regarding the rebellion that of Bedir Khan Beg and other Kurdish begs which started in Van,[87] the Marshal of Erzurum, Esad Pasha, stated that despite giving advice and suggestions to the people in Van Center and its districts, the chaos could not be resolved and that Mustafa Beg, Khan Mahmut, Nurullah Beg and Bedir Khan Beg from the people of Van Center rebelled against the state. Esad Pasha later tried to resolve this issue through reconciliation with the Kurdish begs, but despite all his efforts, he could not.[88] Thereupon, he stated that in order to suppress the rebellion, the Kurdish begs should be attacked regardless of the season, otherwise, if it was too late, the rebellion would spread to a much wider area.[88]

Pressure from the European Powers to stop the massacres of Christians led to Ottoman forces invading his territories in 1846–7, with Omer Pasha's 12,000 strong Ottoman force, which was supported by Yezidi tribesmen seeking revenge,[89][90][91] defeating the Kurdish army in the field near Zeitun, Cizre.[92] At the beginning of the conflict he was able to beat the Ottomans, but as an important commander of his troops, defected to the Ottomans, he was forced to flee to Evruh castle, where he endured an eight months long siege.[93] Bedir Khan had to surrender to the Ottomans at Evreh Castle[94] in Eruh, Siirt on the 4 July 1847.[95] The same day also Han Mahmud was defeated in Tatvan.[94] Bedir Khan was betrayed by Yezdanşer a distant relative and high ranking commander of his forces, who had joined the Ottoman Army in exchange of promises of a rank in the government.[96] Yezdanşer would become appointed the mütesellim of Cizre for a short time.[97] From Evreh castle Bedir Khan and his family were put in chains and taken to Kumçati in the Şırnak province. After 40 days in detention,[94] Bedir Khan and his family were transferred to Constantinople.[98]

Exile in Crete

[edit]

After Bedir Khan's hopes that he would be allowed to settle in Constantinople were not fulfilled, he and his entourage were sent to Heraklion, Crete, which at the time was governed by the Ottoman Empire.[99] In 1853 he requested twice to be allowed to return to Istanbul, but his demands were turned down.[100] In 1855 he purchased a farm just outside of Heraklion, which he named “Kabıl Hora“.[101] As in 1856 a strong earthquake occurred in Crete, he faced financial calamities due to the destructions of his possessions. His salary which he still received from the Ottoman Empire, was only 7000 Kuruş.[101] After Bedir Khan managed to solve the quarrels between the Christians and Muslims on the island, the situation became better.[102] In September 1857, Sultan Abdul Majid changed his approach towards Bedir Khan, doubling his salary, and granting 43 of his followers to return to Kurdistan. Nevertheless, Bedir Khan decided to stay in Crete.[101]

Return and death

[edit]

In 1863, Sultan Abdul Aziz, the successor of Abdul Majid, allowed Bedir Khan and his family to settle in Istanbul, where they bought a mansion in the Fatih quarter.[103] Several of his descendants were admitted into the bureaucracy of the Ottoman Empire.[104] In June 1868, Bedir Khan decided to settle in present-day Syria. He traveled by ship to Beirut and from there he moved to Damascus.[103] Bedir Khan Beg died a year after he settled in Damascus.[105] His funeral was held at the cemetery of Rukneddin, Damascus.[103]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Kurmanji: Mîr Bedîrxan Begê Bûhtî; Turkish: Emir Bedirhan Bey Botan
  2. ^ Kurmanji: Bedirxan Beg; Turkish: Bedirhan Bey

References

[edit]
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  2. ^ Gunter, Michael (2014-11-15). Out of Nowhere: The Kurds of Syria in Peace and War. Hurst. ISBN 978-1-84904-532-2.
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Further reading

[edit]
  • Mehmet Alagöz, Old Habits Die Hard, A Reaction to the Application of Tanzimat Edict: Bedirhan Bey's Revolt, MA Thesis, Boğaziçi University, Istanbul, Turkey, 2003
  • Martin van Bruinessen, Agha, shaikh, and state : the social and political structures of Kurdistan
  • Nazmi Sevgen, Doğu ve Güneydoğu Anadolu'da Türk beylikleri: Osmanlı belgeleri ile Kürt Türkleri tarihi
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